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Federal regulatory involvement with the automobile industry, automotive emissions of air pollutants in particular, is the main emphasis of this paper. Government concern with automotive air pollution is traced from the early 1950's to the present. The present document will focus on the process by which the government brings to bear the well being and concerns Of the American people in relation to automobile-caused air pollution.

Universities, in the process of pursuing their classical roles, the generation and dissemination of knowledge, can contribute significantly to the resolution of automotive air pollution problems if they recognize problem-oriented, as well as discipline-oriented approaches to education. In addition to the classical roles, both faculty and students can contribute as unbiased, but informed, third parties who can validate technical arguments in controversial areas for the public.

The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 require that new model automobiles of 1976 and later meet stringent exhaust emission standards. The technical difficulties appearing in ‘Clean-up’ of the conventional automobile engine require that alternate engines be developed in the event that the conventional engine cannot be made to meet the standards. Although the alternates cannot be mass produced by 1976, prototype engine development and demonstration by that date may lead to decisions to mass produce one or more in the early eighties. Features of the major alternate engine systems are reviewed, projections are made of the prospects of each as a replacement for the conventional engine. The introduction to production of rotary Otto cycle systems by the mid-1970's, gas turbines by the early 1980's and high performance all-electric systems by the late 1980's is projected in this paper.

The national concern over air quality and the understanding of the role of the internal combustion engine powered passenger car as a contributor of atmospheric pollutants has imposed new design criteria upon both the automobile manufacturer and the petroleum refiner. For the passenger car engine builder these criteria have been specified by the emission standards required by the Clean Air Amendments of 1970. With certain exceptions, gasolines for these low-emitting passenger cars have not yet been specified nor have their required quality and performance characteristics been clearly spelled out. This paper attempts to judge the influence of emission control requirements on future gasoline quality. Lead anti-knocks, hydrocarbon compositions and gross physical properties are among the factors considered and an effort is made to quantify the effects of changes in these characteristics on emissions and to estimate their impact on the industry.

The present spark ignition, reciprocating piston, gasoline engine is examined against the basic requirements for an automotive powerplant. The important requirement of emission control is shown to affect these basic requirements. The emission potential of this engine and the prospect of reducing its emissions to an acceptable level are explored. The effect of these factors on future gasoline engines is discussed.

A reduction in truck emissions in metropolitan areas can be accomplished through 1) the installation of pollution control devices, and 2) the more efficient utilization of trucks in the movement of goods. This paper discusses the government-mandated standards for truck emission control, and reviews the various methods employed or suggested for improving the efficiency of trucks -- such as the “off-hours” delivery system -- as well as alternative vehicle modes for moving goods. The conclusion is that improving the efficiency of trucks can reduce congestion -- and costs to both truckers and shippers -- and, at the same time, it also can reduce pollution.

The ecology of our environment has recently been of great concern to all of us. In the bus business, we have gone from horse drawn carriages, to electric, to steam power to diesel power to obtain an efficient, clean operating vehicle. A great deal of effort has been expended in determining the components of the emissions of the diesel engine. Great strides have been made in reducing these emissions. GMC Truck & Coach has developed and released an Environmental Improvement Program that reduces smoke to the invisible range and meets Federal standards for HC, CO and NOx. Odor also is eliminated as a problem.

The heaviest class of intercity trucks is examined using the 1967 Census of Transportation to establish a representative sample of vehicles with truck-miles as the major delineator. Representative road types and vehicle loading factors are selected. Computer simulation of the vehicle and road is used to establish histograms of percent engine load versus engine RPM. The above is then combined with modal emission levels to allow projection on a weighted truck-mile basis, to the entire intercity population of this class vehicle. Heavy class is defined as over 26000 lb. GVW.

Selected techniques for forecasting transportation demand are described and evaluated. Techniques discussed comprise Judgment, including Delphi techniques, “Other Forecasts”, Historical Extrapolation, and Modelling--conventional, regression and econometric models. Simulation as it applies to evaluating large-scale transport facilities is discussed, using airports as an example.

Exhaust particulate lead trapping systems and devices designed to reduce airborne lead emissions by 65 percent or more have been developed and tested on vehicles. Tests of up to 60,000 miles indicate that these devices should retain their effectiveness and last the lifetime of a passenger vehicle without maintenance. The traps reduced the total amount of lead emitted from production vehicles operated on leaded gasoline by 82 to 91 percent. They also reduced by 64 to 84 percent the amount of lead in the air after driving both production and trap-equipped vehicles through a vehicular tunnel. When a trapping system was combined with a gaseous emission control system, consisting of exhaust manifold thermal reactor and exhaust gas recirculation systems, the total lead emitted was reduced by 85 percent and the amount of lead found in the air of the vehicular tunnel was reduced by 71 percent when compared with production vehicles.

International Materials undertook to develop an inherently low-polluting automobile, the “Boston Car,”* with two fixed design parameters: the use of an internal combustion engine and the use of gasoline fuel. On-board production of carbon dioxide-hydrogen mixtures to fuel the engine was the approach undertaken; gasoline was reacted with steam to produce a “reformed” fuel upstream from the engine. Initial efforts to develop an engine to burn the mixture revealed problems with respect to starting reliability and high rpm carburetor flashback. Starting reliability was achieved by providing accurate air/fuel ratios at cranking speeds. It was necessary to employ a spark distributor lacking any provisions for spark advance in order to guarantee elimination of flashback at advanced rpms. These modifications have resulted in extremely fine road performance from the test vehicle, comparable to the production model prior to modification.

The basis for formulating so-called “uniform” emission standards for motor vehicles is examined and found to be inconsistent with the widely accepted principle that “the polluter should pay,” if consideration is given to the problems caused by pollution rather than the sources of emissions. Atmospheric pollution problems are geographically limited and also depend upon other variables such as time of day, and weather conditions. The major problems are associated with Southern California and other cities of the southwest, and congested urban areas. It is proposed that emissions standards should be made flexible in order to reflect these environmental variations, and thus to achieve the maximum environmental improvement for the least total cost to vehicle owners and users.

Regulation of noise from motor vehicles is an inevitability. To provide optimum benefit to the community at a minimum of additional cost to its citizens, these regulations must recognize the responsibilities of all parties involved, provide uniform requirements as appropriate to the level of government, and embody a flexibility to adapt to new findings and circumstances. Both manufacturer and operator, as regulatees, must be considered in the drafting of vehicle noise restrictions.

Reasonable and effective laws for the enforcement of motor vehicle noise have been enacted and successfully applied in California. Specific laws to prohibit both sale and operation of noisy vehicles were necessary. Measurements by both instruments and human ear judgments are practical and necessary at this time. Noise limits should be gradually reduced commensurate with the needs of the public and the capability of the technology. Future controls on noise producing components, in addition to the complete vehicle, appear to be necessary to obtain desirable minimum levels. California has pioneered interim solutions to portions of this environmental problem and has developed the expertise along with the practical experience to achieve further advancements in solving the problems.

America's need for mass transportation systems to meet the challenge of maintaining urban mobility in the 1970's coincides with a growing public awareness and concern for environmental problems including noise pollution. In rail rapid transit, significant technological advances have already been made and used in modern systems on a voluntary basis to alleviate the effects of operational noise and vibration on both passenger and community. Since quiet costs money, experience has generally proven that enforced legislation is necessary to obtain quieter products from industry. However, the rail rapid transit systems of this country are essential public services which will play an increasingly vital role in urban transportation.

The lingering uncertainties about the ability of the source control strategy alone to achieve and maintain the national ambient air quality standards in certain metropolitan areas argue strongly in favor of widening our options. A mixed abatement strategy, combining the progressive improvement of the technology of exhaust emission control with deliberate efforts to reduce the use of cars in the cities is proposed. The effectiveness and feasibility of various forms of vehicle restraints are examined.

A new concept of the linear air turbine vehicle is proposed (reference 1). The tracked air cushion and air driven rapid transit system is designed for the future high speed ground transportation in the urban area. Through the compressed air pipe lines to the passive vehicle, the system employes the principle of compressor, pipe, heating chamber, nozzle, turbine, air cushion and jet in a new combination. This vehicle contributes no air, thermal, vibration nor noise pollution. Many technical, environmental and economical problems have been discussed. The primary results indicate that this is indeed a very efficient, practical and economical system for the future high-speed ground transportation in the major cities.

Deciding what to do about the motor vehicle is characterized by conditions of complexity, value conflicts and uncertainty about the future. Doing something faces the difficulty of affecting a fragmented policy making process. Under such circumstances the most appropriate way to proceed is by seeking additional knowledge through research and experimentation. Research should start from the premise that motor vehicle restraints for clean air would probably entail measures much greater in scale and severity than currently contemplated. Measures of this magnitude imply practical and political problems of an entirely different order, and very probably, profound changes in city form and function as we know them today.

Transportation plays a large role in our style of life, work, and many of our activities. At the same time, our present transportation technology has been a major contributor to the deterioration of environmental quality, particularly air quality. This paper discusses the efforts of the U. S. Department of Transportation to grapple with the problems of transportation and air quality. Of principal concern to the Department is the requirement for States to prepare plans to meet 1975 air quality standards. DOT has been involved in reviewing these plans, addressing the transportation control aspects, and future efforts which may be undertaken to meet the standards. In addition, the Department has a specific environmental impact mandate in its various legislative authorities which includes air pollution and transportation related environmental quality problems.

The significance of the impact of transportation system characteristics on the urban quality has resulted in a need to evaluate certain transportation air quality-oriented policy statements regarding the effect of present efforts to reduce emissions from automobile operation or to design transportation systems that do not constitute a danger to air quality. The evaluation of these policies requires the integration of planning techniques from both transportation and environmental fields. The classical transportation system planning process involves a well-established sequence of data acquisition and systems analysis activities. Likewise, the regional air pollution planning procedures also depend on the use of a sequence of empirical models that require a substantial data base.